Wednesday, June 24, 2009
Stages of Voice Production (Speech Mechanisms)
Voice Production
Before we speak, we inhale air. When we speak, we exhale air. The exhaled air is the raw material out of which we make the finished product.
Tidal air-the minimal amount of air we inhale for the speaking purposes
Complementary air- the additional air we inhale for breathing purposes
Stages of Voice Production
Compression
Speaking starts with the movement of the air out of the body through the process of exhalation. The air we inhale is compressed for exhalation.
The movement begins from the lungs, the place where the air eventually goes after inhalation. The air then passes through a pair of bronchial tubes, a pair of canals which are connected to the lungs at one end to the windpipe or trachea at the other end. The windpipe is the canal inside our neck. Muscles contract and expand the space occupied by the lungs. This compression is done with the aid of a membrane separating the lungs from the intestines. This membrane is called the diaphragm.
Vibration
When the air hits the windpipe or the trachea, it passes through the larynx or the vocal box, situated somewhere in the upper part of the windpipe. The larynx is known as the vibrator. Inside the larynx are the vocal folds, a pair of thin membranes which vibrate when air passes through.
The vibration results in the production of the initial sound of the voice. This is not the actual sound of the voice. It is only the beginning of the sound.
Amplification
The initial sound is made loud and amplified into our true voice by the air chambers in our body called the resonators. When the sound enters an air chamber, the sound reverberates and is consequently multiplied before leaving the air chamber.
The air chamber of our body that serves as resonators are:
a. the vestibule – the first air chamber located above the larynx
b. the pharynx or the throat – the second air chamber located at the inner end of the mouth
c. the nasal cavities – the chambers of the nose
d. the mouth – a very important resonator
Modification
The sound made loud by the resonators is carved out into intelligible sounds, the vowels and consonants, by the modifiers or articulators, those parts of the body that form speech sound.
The modifiers or articulators are:
a. lips – enunciate the bilabial sounds p, b, w, hw, and cooperate with the teeth in the f and v sounds
b. teeth – are used for the s. Together with the tongue, they articulate the soft and hard ths.
c. tongue - is a key modifier. The tongue shapes out the vowels and helps consonants.
d. jaw - does not produce specific sounds but it is an important modifier. If we do not use our jaw, we tend to mumble. We are then said to be eating our words.
e. hard palate - the ceiling of the mouth
f. soft palate – the cave-like extension of the hard palate
Before we speak, we inhale air. When we speak, we exhale air. The exhaled air is the raw material out of which we make the finished product.
Tidal air-the minimal amount of air we inhale for the speaking purposes
Complementary air- the additional air we inhale for breathing purposes
Stages of Voice Production
Compression
Speaking starts with the movement of the air out of the body through the process of exhalation. The air we inhale is compressed for exhalation.
The movement begins from the lungs, the place where the air eventually goes after inhalation. The air then passes through a pair of bronchial tubes, a pair of canals which are connected to the lungs at one end to the windpipe or trachea at the other end. The windpipe is the canal inside our neck. Muscles contract and expand the space occupied by the lungs. This compression is done with the aid of a membrane separating the lungs from the intestines. This membrane is called the diaphragm.
Vibration
When the air hits the windpipe or the trachea, it passes through the larynx or the vocal box, situated somewhere in the upper part of the windpipe. The larynx is known as the vibrator. Inside the larynx are the vocal folds, a pair of thin membranes which vibrate when air passes through.
The vibration results in the production of the initial sound of the voice. This is not the actual sound of the voice. It is only the beginning of the sound.
Amplification
The initial sound is made loud and amplified into our true voice by the air chambers in our body called the resonators. When the sound enters an air chamber, the sound reverberates and is consequently multiplied before leaving the air chamber.
The air chamber of our body that serves as resonators are:
a. the vestibule – the first air chamber located above the larynx
b. the pharynx or the throat – the second air chamber located at the inner end of the mouth
c. the nasal cavities – the chambers of the nose
d. the mouth – a very important resonator
Modification
The sound made loud by the resonators is carved out into intelligible sounds, the vowels and consonants, by the modifiers or articulators, those parts of the body that form speech sound.
The modifiers or articulators are:
a. lips – enunciate the bilabial sounds p, b, w, hw, and cooperate with the teeth in the f and v sounds
b. teeth – are used for the s. Together with the tongue, they articulate the soft and hard ths.
c. tongue - is a key modifier. The tongue shapes out the vowels and helps consonants.
d. jaw - does not produce specific sounds but it is an important modifier. If we do not use our jaw, we tend to mumble. We are then said to be eating our words.
e. hard palate - the ceiling of the mouth
f. soft palate – the cave-like extension of the hard palate
Self Confidence
SELF – CONFIDENCE
Self – confidence in public speaking is the positive feeling of the speaker that he can face up to an audience and deliver a good, if not brilliant, speech.
If you worry excessively over your speech, i.e., during preparation and even at the time of delivery, you lack self – confidence.
If you know that despite your own deficiencies you can speak successfully, you have self – confidence.
If you overlook, whether intentionally or not, your own deficiencies or overestimate your capabilities, you are overconfident.
Confidence and tension are interrelated. Lack of self – confidence is a problem for beginners. It causes them to be overly tense. Too much tension makes them less confident.
Bad Effects of Lack of Self – Confidence and Unnecessary Tension
Your body trembles.
Your voice trembles.
You feel small.
You fidget and feel uncomfortable.
Your thinking faculties are paralyzed.
Your mind goes blank.
During delivery, you do things you rather not, or do not do things that you should.
You lapse into long embarrassing pauses.
You stammer and stumble throughout the speech delivery.
Nervous Tension
There is always some amount of tension in our body unless we are already dead. It is at its minimum when we are asleep, and it is in its maximum when we are irritated because of some unpleasant happening or excited because we expect an important event to happen. Thus, just before we speak in public, tension should be at its peak. As soon as we begin to speak, tension should subside. If it does not, it only means that are fully concentrated on the speech, but we are self – conscious, i.e., we still harbor thoughts about ourselves and about committing mistakes.
The fear that gives rise to nervousness is nature’s way of protecting us from getting into serious trouble. It is a natural reaction to unfamiliar situations.
While nervousness is natural, people do not really expect speakers to show signs of nervousness. If you do, people will not usually pay serious attention to you. It reveals the fact that you are novice, lacking of experience. Often listeners laugh at your nervousness. They are not really laughing at you. They picture themselves in your situation and are relieved that they are not in your place.
Even if your heartbeat is racing a thousand times a minute, if you do not exhibit any external act of nervousness, no one will certainly know about your nervousness.
THE ANATOMY OF FLATFORM/STAGE FRIGHT
Reasons why you lack self – confidence
Shyness
Platform fright may be a result of shyness as a personality trait. One may be naturally shy. There is no alternative but to try to overcome this.
Try to improve your day – to – day dealings with people. Speak in company. Say something. Develop confidence in your manner of speaking and in your actuations with them. This will help you curb whatever excess fears you may have of audiences.
Inexperience
A person who has little or no experience at all in delivering speeches generally lacks self – confidence. He usually does not know what to say, or he does not have the faculty of saying it, either as to method or language. It might also be that he is usually afraid to commit mistakes in public.
As you gain more and more experience, your confidence proportionately increases. It has truly said that an experienced person is merely one that who has already committed a lot of mistakes.
Unpreparedness
It makes the speaker very much ill at ease.
Prepare for the job.
Decisiveness of the Speech
The speech is decisive of your future. Sometimes, you feel that the speech you are about to deliver will make or break you; will bring you rewards and honors or relegate you to oblivion.
Fear of the Unknown
At times, you are afraid because you do not know what is ahead of you. Getting to know way ahead of time the exact place where you are going to speak lessens tension tremendously. Your mind is conditioned and prepare for the coming event.
Effects of Drinks and Drugs
Drinking makes you lose some control in your faculties. The effect on your delivery might be the opposite of what you expect. You become emboldened to do things you may regret later on. You may act in an odd manner.
Drinking is habit - forming. It makes you excruciatingly dependent on it. If you have become used to it before speaking to audiences, you will find yourself at a total loss if you are about to deliver a speech and you cannot find any hard liquor or drink.
What has been said about drinks should also be true for drugs, if not more so.
There are those who are now used to taking tranquilizers to clam their nerves. Tranquilizers calm and deaden. Your delivery will generally have no life.
Peace and Poise
A self – confident person has peace of mind and poise in delivery.
HOW TO GAIN SELF – CONFIDENCE AND EQUANIMITY
1. Take care of your physical appearance; be well groomed at all times.
Ø The first step toward any ego development is to concern oneself with how one looks to the outside world, not only when one is scheduled to deliver a speech, but every minute that one is seen in public. Build an image that gives your personality, elicits respect, and endows you with leadership qualities of a good speaker.
Ø Good grooming is always an asset. It determines your level in the eyes of the public. The saying “clothes make the man,” still holds true.
2. Prepare well.
Ø A good deal of success in public speaking hinges on preparation.
Ø Even to the very experienced, some amount of practice is still needed.
Ø Do not wait to go through a bad speech before realizing the importance of preparing well.
3. Face up to your audience.
Look at individual audience straight in the eye. Talk to them as you should.
Ø Practice by establishing good eye contact with those you talk or talk in ordinary conversation. Study yourself. If you cannot look somebody straight in the eye in the constant manner while you are talking, you may have the same difficulty when speaking in public.
4. Exercise before delivery and more within proper bounds during delivery.
Ø Physical movement relaxes your muscles and minimizes tension. The tension in a speaker’s body will substantially diminish if his muscles are loosened.
Ø Before speaking, exercise your limbs and body. Take deep breaths with numbered regularity to keep your voice mechanism in good working order. To ensure proper articulation, exercise the muscles around the mouth; open the mouth to its fullest.
Ø While speaking, gestures and walking once in a while re helpful physical movements. However, make sure that that any movement of the hand, body, head or limb must not only be within legitimate bounds but must also be appropriate.
5. Concentrate on your speech and on your audience.
Ø In delivering the speech, the speaker should concentrate on the subject matter of his speech and on his audience. That way he thinks less about himself. That way too, he can be substantive about his speech and be truly communicative with his audience.
6. Be determined.
Ø Success is usually the result of a reasonably brave adventure into the unknown. Only if you are determined not to give up can see yourself through.
7. Feel confident.
Ø Start your speech as if you have no stage fright. Do not start your speech with an apology. Never begin your speech with confession of inadequacy. Confidence can help you forget your stage fright.
8. Do not prepare a long speech.
Ø After you have delivered the message of your speech, you stop. If you extent your time, the longer you prolong the agony.
Ø If you fail to deliver an effective speech as expected, do not despair. Consider everything as a learning experience. Accept criticism. Consider learning.
Self – confidence in public speaking is the positive feeling of the speaker that he can face up to an audience and deliver a good, if not brilliant, speech.
If you worry excessively over your speech, i.e., during preparation and even at the time of delivery, you lack self – confidence.
If you know that despite your own deficiencies you can speak successfully, you have self – confidence.
If you overlook, whether intentionally or not, your own deficiencies or overestimate your capabilities, you are overconfident.
Confidence and tension are interrelated. Lack of self – confidence is a problem for beginners. It causes them to be overly tense. Too much tension makes them less confident.
Bad Effects of Lack of Self – Confidence and Unnecessary Tension
Your body trembles.
Your voice trembles.
You feel small.
You fidget and feel uncomfortable.
Your thinking faculties are paralyzed.
Your mind goes blank.
During delivery, you do things you rather not, or do not do things that you should.
You lapse into long embarrassing pauses.
You stammer and stumble throughout the speech delivery.
Nervous Tension
There is always some amount of tension in our body unless we are already dead. It is at its minimum when we are asleep, and it is in its maximum when we are irritated because of some unpleasant happening or excited because we expect an important event to happen. Thus, just before we speak in public, tension should be at its peak. As soon as we begin to speak, tension should subside. If it does not, it only means that are fully concentrated on the speech, but we are self – conscious, i.e., we still harbor thoughts about ourselves and about committing mistakes.
The fear that gives rise to nervousness is nature’s way of protecting us from getting into serious trouble. It is a natural reaction to unfamiliar situations.
While nervousness is natural, people do not really expect speakers to show signs of nervousness. If you do, people will not usually pay serious attention to you. It reveals the fact that you are novice, lacking of experience. Often listeners laugh at your nervousness. They are not really laughing at you. They picture themselves in your situation and are relieved that they are not in your place.
Even if your heartbeat is racing a thousand times a minute, if you do not exhibit any external act of nervousness, no one will certainly know about your nervousness.
THE ANATOMY OF FLATFORM/STAGE FRIGHT
Reasons why you lack self – confidence
Shyness
Platform fright may be a result of shyness as a personality trait. One may be naturally shy. There is no alternative but to try to overcome this.
Try to improve your day – to – day dealings with people. Speak in company. Say something. Develop confidence in your manner of speaking and in your actuations with them. This will help you curb whatever excess fears you may have of audiences.
Inexperience
A person who has little or no experience at all in delivering speeches generally lacks self – confidence. He usually does not know what to say, or he does not have the faculty of saying it, either as to method or language. It might also be that he is usually afraid to commit mistakes in public.
As you gain more and more experience, your confidence proportionately increases. It has truly said that an experienced person is merely one that who has already committed a lot of mistakes.
Unpreparedness
It makes the speaker very much ill at ease.
Prepare for the job.
Decisiveness of the Speech
The speech is decisive of your future. Sometimes, you feel that the speech you are about to deliver will make or break you; will bring you rewards and honors or relegate you to oblivion.
Fear of the Unknown
At times, you are afraid because you do not know what is ahead of you. Getting to know way ahead of time the exact place where you are going to speak lessens tension tremendously. Your mind is conditioned and prepare for the coming event.
Effects of Drinks and Drugs
Drinking makes you lose some control in your faculties. The effect on your delivery might be the opposite of what you expect. You become emboldened to do things you may regret later on. You may act in an odd manner.
Drinking is habit - forming. It makes you excruciatingly dependent on it. If you have become used to it before speaking to audiences, you will find yourself at a total loss if you are about to deliver a speech and you cannot find any hard liquor or drink.
What has been said about drinks should also be true for drugs, if not more so.
There are those who are now used to taking tranquilizers to clam their nerves. Tranquilizers calm and deaden. Your delivery will generally have no life.
Peace and Poise
A self – confident person has peace of mind and poise in delivery.
HOW TO GAIN SELF – CONFIDENCE AND EQUANIMITY
1. Take care of your physical appearance; be well groomed at all times.
Ø The first step toward any ego development is to concern oneself with how one looks to the outside world, not only when one is scheduled to deliver a speech, but every minute that one is seen in public. Build an image that gives your personality, elicits respect, and endows you with leadership qualities of a good speaker.
Ø Good grooming is always an asset. It determines your level in the eyes of the public. The saying “clothes make the man,” still holds true.
2. Prepare well.
Ø A good deal of success in public speaking hinges on preparation.
Ø Even to the very experienced, some amount of practice is still needed.
Ø Do not wait to go through a bad speech before realizing the importance of preparing well.
3. Face up to your audience.
Look at individual audience straight in the eye. Talk to them as you should.
Ø Practice by establishing good eye contact with those you talk or talk in ordinary conversation. Study yourself. If you cannot look somebody straight in the eye in the constant manner while you are talking, you may have the same difficulty when speaking in public.
4. Exercise before delivery and more within proper bounds during delivery.
Ø Physical movement relaxes your muscles and minimizes tension. The tension in a speaker’s body will substantially diminish if his muscles are loosened.
Ø Before speaking, exercise your limbs and body. Take deep breaths with numbered regularity to keep your voice mechanism in good working order. To ensure proper articulation, exercise the muscles around the mouth; open the mouth to its fullest.
Ø While speaking, gestures and walking once in a while re helpful physical movements. However, make sure that that any movement of the hand, body, head or limb must not only be within legitimate bounds but must also be appropriate.
5. Concentrate on your speech and on your audience.
Ø In delivering the speech, the speaker should concentrate on the subject matter of his speech and on his audience. That way he thinks less about himself. That way too, he can be substantive about his speech and be truly communicative with his audience.
6. Be determined.
Ø Success is usually the result of a reasonably brave adventure into the unknown. Only if you are determined not to give up can see yourself through.
7. Feel confident.
Ø Start your speech as if you have no stage fright. Do not start your speech with an apology. Never begin your speech with confession of inadequacy. Confidence can help you forget your stage fright.
8. Do not prepare a long speech.
Ø After you have delivered the message of your speech, you stop. If you extent your time, the longer you prolong the agony.
Ø If you fail to deliver an effective speech as expected, do not despair. Consider everything as a learning experience. Accept criticism. Consider learning.
Principles of Delivery
PRINCIPLES OF DELIVERY
Physical Appearance
A general principle that speakers should constantly be aware of is that, consciously or unconsciously, people try to determine person’s character from the way he looks, talks, and acts.
Look alive. Dull – looking person cannot impress. Dress neatly – neatness has always been a virtue. In fact, one’s manner of dressing as a whole determines to a great extent the image he projects.
Personality
Many effective speakers have charisma, that indefinable personal magnetism of a person that gives tremendous power to the words he speaks.
A good personality is something that is not acquired overnight. The prospective speaker should therefore realize that if he will continue to involve himself in public speaking, he should develop a desirable personality.
Bodily Behavior
The speaker’s movements – from the time he walks up to platform to the time he leaves it – are usually closely watched by the audience.
While speaking, do not move unnecessarily. Taking a step or two can properly divide your thoughts, but too much of it can be distracting. Hands that do not gesture should remain at the sides of the body, or temporarily at the back.
Move only with proper motivation. Remember always to observe the elementary courtesies expected of a lady or a gentleman.
Eye Contact
A speaker must look at individual members of the audience straight in the eye. Listeners must feel that the speaker is talking to them personally. This establishes physical contact with the audience, the only way it can be done.
Posture
A speaker must be conscious of the way he stands. He may be comfortable with a certain stance, but if it is not comfortable from the point of view of the audience, such posture must be avoided.
Balance the weight of the body on both feet.
There are no fixed rules as to how the feet should be positioned. The left or right foot may be forward, or they may be on the same level. Gentlemen may keep their feet reasonably apart from each other. Ladies may get away with heels close together, without appearing to be stiff.
Poise
It is something that a speaker must have as basic equipment when you appear before an audience. It is synonymous with composure, bearing or tranquil self – possession. It is a person’s easy manner marked by self – confidence and gracious dignity.
Gesture
It is any act of the speaker that reinforces or demonstrates ideas. One uses any part of the body to gesture, particularly the face, head, shoulders, arms, and hands.
Facial expressions play a role in communication. Generally, one must show life on his face, whether he exhibits happiness, determination, anger, or any other emotion. Avoid a poker face or a face with a dead – span expression.
Head gestures must be employed by nodding, shaking, pointing, or by emphasizing.
A shrug of the shoulders may mean indifference, resignation, or lack of knowledge.
There are four basic hand gestures:
· Palm’s – up gesture. The palm of the hand is either facing the audience or facing upwards. This is the affirmative or giving or receiving gesture.
· Palm’s down gesture. The back side of the palm is either facing the audience or facing upwards. This is the negative or the rejecting gesture.
· Index – finger gesture. The index finger is extended and all the other fingers are closed. This is the pointing gesture.
· Clenched fist gesture. All the fingers are closed with the thumb over the closed fingers. This is the emphatic gesture or the one that denotes force and power.
· Palm gestures. These are formed with the fingers reasonably close together with the thumb a little apart from the fingers. They are used for a variety of purposes.
There are four types of gestures classified as to function.
· Locative gestures. These point out persons, places, or things within the sight of the listeners or within the imagination.
· Picturing gestures. These describe or demonstrate objects, ideas, or action.
· Emphatic gestures. These stress or emphasize ideas.
· Suggestive gestures. These stimulate the imagination of the listeners.
There are three steps to make a complete gesture.
· Approach – the movement of the hands from the sides of the body to the place where the stroke will be made
· Stroke – the gesture proper
· Return – the movement of the hand from the place where the stroke is made back to the sides of the body.
There are essential principles of good gestures.
· Integration. The gesture must suit the idea it supports.
· Coordination. The gesture must be harmonized with the other parts of the body.
· Timing. The gesture must be timed to the word it supports.
· Control. The gesture must be well – controlled.
· Definiteness. The gesture must be precise.
· Variety. The gesture must be varied.
Physical Appearance
A general principle that speakers should constantly be aware of is that, consciously or unconsciously, people try to determine person’s character from the way he looks, talks, and acts.
Look alive. Dull – looking person cannot impress. Dress neatly – neatness has always been a virtue. In fact, one’s manner of dressing as a whole determines to a great extent the image he projects.
Personality
Many effective speakers have charisma, that indefinable personal magnetism of a person that gives tremendous power to the words he speaks.
A good personality is something that is not acquired overnight. The prospective speaker should therefore realize that if he will continue to involve himself in public speaking, he should develop a desirable personality.
Bodily Behavior
The speaker’s movements – from the time he walks up to platform to the time he leaves it – are usually closely watched by the audience.
While speaking, do not move unnecessarily. Taking a step or two can properly divide your thoughts, but too much of it can be distracting. Hands that do not gesture should remain at the sides of the body, or temporarily at the back.
Move only with proper motivation. Remember always to observe the elementary courtesies expected of a lady or a gentleman.
Eye Contact
A speaker must look at individual members of the audience straight in the eye. Listeners must feel that the speaker is talking to them personally. This establishes physical contact with the audience, the only way it can be done.
Posture
A speaker must be conscious of the way he stands. He may be comfortable with a certain stance, but if it is not comfortable from the point of view of the audience, such posture must be avoided.
Balance the weight of the body on both feet.
There are no fixed rules as to how the feet should be positioned. The left or right foot may be forward, or they may be on the same level. Gentlemen may keep their feet reasonably apart from each other. Ladies may get away with heels close together, without appearing to be stiff.
Poise
It is something that a speaker must have as basic equipment when you appear before an audience. It is synonymous with composure, bearing or tranquil self – possession. It is a person’s easy manner marked by self – confidence and gracious dignity.
Gesture
It is any act of the speaker that reinforces or demonstrates ideas. One uses any part of the body to gesture, particularly the face, head, shoulders, arms, and hands.
Facial expressions play a role in communication. Generally, one must show life on his face, whether he exhibits happiness, determination, anger, or any other emotion. Avoid a poker face or a face with a dead – span expression.
Head gestures must be employed by nodding, shaking, pointing, or by emphasizing.
A shrug of the shoulders may mean indifference, resignation, or lack of knowledge.
There are four basic hand gestures:
· Palm’s – up gesture. The palm of the hand is either facing the audience or facing upwards. This is the affirmative or giving or receiving gesture.
· Palm’s down gesture. The back side of the palm is either facing the audience or facing upwards. This is the negative or the rejecting gesture.
· Index – finger gesture. The index finger is extended and all the other fingers are closed. This is the pointing gesture.
· Clenched fist gesture. All the fingers are closed with the thumb over the closed fingers. This is the emphatic gesture or the one that denotes force and power.
· Palm gestures. These are formed with the fingers reasonably close together with the thumb a little apart from the fingers. They are used for a variety of purposes.
There are four types of gestures classified as to function.
· Locative gestures. These point out persons, places, or things within the sight of the listeners or within the imagination.
· Picturing gestures. These describe or demonstrate objects, ideas, or action.
· Emphatic gestures. These stress or emphasize ideas.
· Suggestive gestures. These stimulate the imagination of the listeners.
There are three steps to make a complete gesture.
· Approach – the movement of the hands from the sides of the body to the place where the stroke will be made
· Stroke – the gesture proper
· Return – the movement of the hand from the place where the stroke is made back to the sides of the body.
There are essential principles of good gestures.
· Integration. The gesture must suit the idea it supports.
· Coordination. The gesture must be harmonized with the other parts of the body.
· Timing. The gesture must be timed to the word it supports.
· Control. The gesture must be well – controlled.
· Definiteness. The gesture must be precise.
· Variety. The gesture must be varied.
IPA
Phonetics – the study of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics – the study of how the vocal tract produces the sounds of language
*To describe speech sounds, it is necessary to know what an individual sound is, and how each sound differs from all others.
The Phonetic Alphabet
The discrepancy between spelling and sounds gave rise to a movement of “spelling reformers” called orthoepists. They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound and one sound would correspond to one letter, thus creating a phonetic alphabet to simplify spelling.
It is easy to understand why spelling reformers believe there is a need for a phonetic alphabet. Several letters may represent a single sound:
to, two, too
through, threw
clue, shoe
A single letter may represent different sounds:
dame dad father call village many
A combination of letters may represent a single sound:
shoot character Thomas physics either deal rough nation coat glacial theater plain
Some letters have no sound at all in certain words:
mnemonic autumn resign ghost
pterodactyl write hole corps
psychology sword debt gnaw
bough lamb island knot
The spelling may fail to represent sounds that occur. In many words, the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound.
cute (compare: coot)
futile (compare: rule)
utility (compare: Uzbek)
Articulatory Phonetics – the study of how the vocal tract produces the sounds of language
*To describe speech sounds, it is necessary to know what an individual sound is, and how each sound differs from all others.
The Phonetic Alphabet
The discrepancy between spelling and sounds gave rise to a movement of “spelling reformers” called orthoepists. They wanted to revise the alphabet so that one letter would correspond to one sound and one sound would correspond to one letter, thus creating a phonetic alphabet to simplify spelling.
It is easy to understand why spelling reformers believe there is a need for a phonetic alphabet. Several letters may represent a single sound:
to, two, too
through, threw
clue, shoe
A single letter may represent different sounds:
dame dad father call village many
A combination of letters may represent a single sound:
shoot character Thomas physics either deal rough nation coat glacial theater plain
Some letters have no sound at all in certain words:
mnemonic autumn resign ghost
pterodactyl write hole corps
psychology sword debt gnaw
bough lamb island knot
The spelling may fail to represent sounds that occur. In many words, the letter u represents a y sound followed by a u sound.
cute (compare: coot)
futile (compare: rule)
utility (compare: Uzbek)
Our Queer Language
Our Queer Language
I think you already know
Of TOUGH and BOUGH and COUGH and DOUGH,
Others may stumble, but not you
On HICCOUGH, THOROUGH, and THROUGH.
Well done! And now you wish, perhaps,
To learn of new familiar traps?
Beware of HEARD, as a dreadful word
That looks like BEARD and sounds like BIRD.
And DEAD; it’s said like bed, not BEAD –
For goodness sake don’t call it DEED!
Watch out for MEAT and GREAT and THREAT –
They rhyme with SUITE and STRAIGHT and DEBT.
A MOTH is not a MOTH on MOTHER
Nor BOTH in BOTHER or in BROTHER.
And HERE is not match for THERE.
Nor DEAR and FEAR for BEAR and PEAR.
And there are DOSE and ROSE and LOSE –
Just look them up – and GOOSE and CHOOSE,
And CORK and WORK and CARD and WARD,
And FONT and FRONT, and WORD and SWORD.
And DO and GO and THWART and CART –
Come, come, I’ve hardly made a start!
A dreadful language? Man alive,
I’d mastered it when I was five.
Guide Questions
What words have almost the same spelling but have different pronunciation? What do these words reveal about the English language?
Why is English a queer language?
I think you already know
Of TOUGH and BOUGH and COUGH and DOUGH,
Others may stumble, but not you
On HICCOUGH, THOROUGH, and THROUGH.
Well done! And now you wish, perhaps,
To learn of new familiar traps?
Beware of HEARD, as a dreadful word
That looks like BEARD and sounds like BIRD.
And DEAD; it’s said like bed, not BEAD –
For goodness sake don’t call it DEED!
Watch out for MEAT and GREAT and THREAT –
They rhyme with SUITE and STRAIGHT and DEBT.
A MOTH is not a MOTH on MOTHER
Nor BOTH in BOTHER or in BROTHER.
And HERE is not match for THERE.
Nor DEAR and FEAR for BEAR and PEAR.
And there are DOSE and ROSE and LOSE –
Just look them up – and GOOSE and CHOOSE,
And CORK and WORK and CARD and WARD,
And FONT and FRONT, and WORD and SWORD.
And DO and GO and THWART and CART –
Come, come, I’ve hardly made a start!
A dreadful language? Man alive,
I’d mastered it when I was five.
Guide Questions
What words have almost the same spelling but have different pronunciation? What do these words reveal about the English language?
Why is English a queer language?
Communication
English 29
Communication- a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior
Forms of Communication
Verbal Communication- uses either the written or spoken language
oral communication
written communication
email
Non-verbal Communication- uses non-linguistic symbols such as body movements, facial expressions, gestures, eye movements, touch, clothing, etc.
Key Components of the Communication Process
Sender- the person who is sending the message
Message- a communication in writing, in speech, or by signals
Channel-the medium used in transporting message
Receiver-the person who receives the message and the one who gives feedback
Feedback- a verbal or non-verbal reaction or response
Barriers of Communication
Internal- fatigue, poor listening skills, attitude toward the sender or information, lack of interest in the message, fear, mistrust, negative attitude, lack of common experience, and emotions.
External- noise, distractions, e-mail not working, bad phone connections, time of day, sender used too many technical words for the audience, and environment
Major Types of Communication
Intrapersonal Communication- conversing with yourself by thinking
Interpersonal Communication- communication between to people
Dyadic Communication-involves two parties
Group Communication- communication among three or more people
Public Communication- a speaker-audience communication which is used when you wish to address an audience
*Public communication also includes Mass Communication which is done either in printed or oral medium. If it is oral, it is done through some electronic devices such as radio and television. The printed form is done through the newspapers, magazines, and books.
Speech Communication- communication by word of mouth
ATTENTION: How important is speech and language to us?
Functions of Speech Communication
Speech communication connects one person with another.
Speech communication develops high mental processes.
Speech communication regulates speech itself.
Speech communication serves as an important factor in the preservation of one’s heritage.
Essential Characteristics of Speech Communication
Speech communication is purposive.
Speech communication involves interaction.
Speech communication is transitory.
Speech communication occurs in specific settings.
Speech communication is influenced by the fields of experience of the speaker.
Speech communication does not contain the usual cues of writing.
Communication- a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior
Forms of Communication
Verbal Communication- uses either the written or spoken language
oral communication
written communication
Non-verbal Communication- uses non-linguistic symbols such as body movements, facial expressions, gestures, eye movements, touch, clothing, etc.
Key Components of the Communication Process
Sender- the person who is sending the message
Message- a communication in writing, in speech, or by signals
Channel-the medium used in transporting message
Receiver-the person who receives the message and the one who gives feedback
Feedback- a verbal or non-verbal reaction or response
Barriers of Communication
Internal- fatigue, poor listening skills, attitude toward the sender or information, lack of interest in the message, fear, mistrust, negative attitude, lack of common experience, and emotions.
External- noise, distractions, e-mail not working, bad phone connections, time of day, sender used too many technical words for the audience, and environment
Major Types of Communication
Intrapersonal Communication- conversing with yourself by thinking
Interpersonal Communication- communication between to people
Dyadic Communication-involves two parties
Group Communication- communication among three or more people
Public Communication- a speaker-audience communication which is used when you wish to address an audience
*Public communication also includes Mass Communication which is done either in printed or oral medium. If it is oral, it is done through some electronic devices such as radio and television. The printed form is done through the newspapers, magazines, and books.
Speech Communication- communication by word of mouth
ATTENTION: How important is speech and language to us?
Functions of Speech Communication
Speech communication connects one person with another.
Speech communication develops high mental processes.
Speech communication regulates speech itself.
Speech communication serves as an important factor in the preservation of one’s heritage.
Essential Characteristics of Speech Communication
Speech communication is purposive.
Speech communication involves interaction.
Speech communication is transitory.
Speech communication occurs in specific settings.
Speech communication is influenced by the fields of experience of the speaker.
Speech communication does not contain the usual cues of writing.
Factors of Delivery
Factors of Delivery
Platform behavior and posture refer to the speaker’s physical performance.
Loudness and clarity refer to the speaker’s voice.
Pronunciation and Grammar refer to the speaker’s command of the language.
Platform Behavior
General rule to remember: Everything that a speaker does and everything that a speaker does not do must have proper motivation. There must always be a good reason for any pause or for any movement.
ü Male: has a tendency to shift the weight of the body from one leg to another.
ü Female: prone to swing and sway.
Avoid them and other mannerisms: scratching your head, rubbing your nose, looking at the ceiling, playing with your fingers, and the like.
Posture – something that has been pounded on us since childhood days
ü Bad posture is an uncomfortable sight to the listeners.
v Balance the weight of your body on both feet at all times.
Loudness
ü Pay attention to the people in the last row. If they can hear you, everybody can. Do not be too loud, however. Be comfortably loud.
4. Clarity
ü Speak slower and enunciate the words a little more deliberately than in ordinary conversation.
Pronunciation
ü The pronunciation of English words is distinct and separate from the pronunciation of any other languages and dialects.
ü Do not allow other languages and languages that you know affect your English pronunciation.
ü Whenever in doubt as to your pronunciation, consult a modern dictionary. Ask those whom you think know.
ü See how good speakers utter the words about whose pronunciation you are in doubt.
Grammar – a big problem of the ordinary Filipino
ü Correct grammar is not a matter of intelligence, but a matter of use.
ü Be vigilant in avoiding grammatical errors.
ü Expose yourself to the language as often as possible.
ü Through practice and constant exposure to English – thinking, reading, writing, speaking, listening, even daydreaming in the language, if possible – you will, to your amazement, achieve improvement.
Platform behavior and posture refer to the speaker’s physical performance.
Loudness and clarity refer to the speaker’s voice.
Pronunciation and Grammar refer to the speaker’s command of the language.
Platform Behavior
General rule to remember: Everything that a speaker does and everything that a speaker does not do must have proper motivation. There must always be a good reason for any pause or for any movement.
ü Male: has a tendency to shift the weight of the body from one leg to another.
ü Female: prone to swing and sway.
Avoid them and other mannerisms: scratching your head, rubbing your nose, looking at the ceiling, playing with your fingers, and the like.
Posture – something that has been pounded on us since childhood days
ü Bad posture is an uncomfortable sight to the listeners.
v Balance the weight of your body on both feet at all times.
Loudness
ü Pay attention to the people in the last row. If they can hear you, everybody can. Do not be too loud, however. Be comfortably loud.
4. Clarity
ü Speak slower and enunciate the words a little more deliberately than in ordinary conversation.
Pronunciation
ü The pronunciation of English words is distinct and separate from the pronunciation of any other languages and dialects.
ü Do not allow other languages and languages that you know affect your English pronunciation.
ü Whenever in doubt as to your pronunciation, consult a modern dictionary. Ask those whom you think know.
ü See how good speakers utter the words about whose pronunciation you are in doubt.
Grammar – a big problem of the ordinary Filipino
ü Correct grammar is not a matter of intelligence, but a matter of use.
ü Be vigilant in avoiding grammatical errors.
ü Expose yourself to the language as often as possible.
ü Through practice and constant exposure to English – thinking, reading, writing, speaking, listening, even daydreaming in the language, if possible – you will, to your amazement, achieve improvement.
Debate
DEBATE
Ø “to engage in strife and combat”
Ø any oral controversy
v an informal dispute between individuals who examine some question and consider the arguments on both sides
v an open argument before the public between two opponents
v a formal, highly regulated discussion of a given proposition between two matched teams as a test of their forensic ability
v an argument in one’s mind over some decisions he/she must make
VALUES OF DEBATE
1. Research skills – help in finding information and evidence in doing research works.
2. Organizational skills – help in planning speeches or write papers especially those that require quick and clear amount of information using various organizational patterns.
3. Critical listening skills – help in learning to examine the quality of the evidence and reasoning.
4. Speaking skills – help in gaining confidence in presenting ideas and standing up for certain beliefs in front of a group.
TYPES OF DEBATE
1. Parliamentary debate
v Asian – 2 competing teams (government and opposition), with 3 speakers in each team
v British – 4 competing teams, with 2 speakers in each team
v Australian – 2 competing teams, with 4 speakers in each team
2. Douglas – Lincoln – one on one debate
3. Oxford – Oregon – 2 competing teams, with (affirmative and opposite), with 3 speakers in each team
PROPOSITION – a statement of a problem that is worded so that there are clearly two sides to the argument
Qualities of a Good Proposition
1. It must be debatable.
2. It must be affirmative.
3. It must be stated concisely.
4. It must be a statement, not a question.
5. It must raise one central idea only.
Types of Proposition
1. Proposition of Fact – a statement that something is or is not true
Example: Resolved: That schools with vocational programs have lower student dropouts.
2. Proposition of Value – a statement that something is good or bad, right or wrong, useful or useless
Example: Resolved: That an oppressive government is better than no government at all.
3. Proposition of Policy – a statement that says something should or should not be done
Example: Resolved: That students with a course grade of 1.00 should be excused from taking the final exam.
DYNAMICS OF DEBATE: ASIANS AND AUSTRALIAN FORMATS
Government
Opposition
1. Prime Minister (PM) (7 – 8 minutes)
Ø Defines motion
Ø Sets parameters
Ø Forwards government’s case and states split
Ø Signposts Deputy Prime Minister
3. Deputy Prime Minister (DPM) (7 – 8 minutes)
Ø Rebuilds PM’s case
Ø Restates theme
Ø Builds own split
Ø Signposts
Ø Summarizes government’s case
5. Rebuttal Speaker (7 – 8 minutes)
Ø Rebuts point by point or thematically
Ø Rebuilds government’s case
8. Reply Speaker (4 minutes)
Ø Identifies issues in the debate
Ø Says why they did a better job in addressing issues
2. Leader of the Opposition (LO) (7 – 8 minutes)
Ø Negates the motion
Ø Sets own parameters
Ø Introduces case and states split
Ø Signposts Deputy Leader of the Opposition
4. Deputy Leader of the Opposition (DLO) (7 – 8 minutes)
Ø Rebuilds LO’s case
Ø Restates theme
Ø Builds own split
Ø Signposts
Ø Summarizes opposition’s case
6. Rebuttal Speaker (7 – 8 minutes)
Ø Rebuts point by point or thematically
Ø Rebuilds opposition case
7. Reply Speaker (4 minutes)
Ø Identifies issues in the debate
Ø Says why they did a better job in addressing issues
HOW TO PREPARE A SPEECH
1. Exordium - opening
2. Salutation – greetings
3. Definition
4. Team Split – assignment of issues
5. Argument 1
6. Argument 2
7. Argument 3
8. Closing
KINDS OF EVIDENCE
a. Facts
· Statements of actuality
· Established facts cannot be refuted , but you can offer opposing facts
b. Examples
· Specific instances, cases, illustrations, comparisons, situations, conditions, or occurrences which throw light on a problem
· Adequate and good examples can prove a point completely
c. Statistics
· Figures based on facts
· Powerful if extensive, up to date, and reliable
d. Quotations
· Citations of people’s statements
· May deal with facts or opinions
· Also called testimony or authority
· Be sure that the person you are quoting has prestige and that his authority is acceptable to your opponent and to your audience.
KINDS OF REASONING
1. Deductive reasoning – from the general to particular
Example: All citizens of the Philippines are guaranteed equal political rights under the constitution. I am a citizen of the Philippines. Therefore, I have the political rights as other citizens.
2. Inductive reasoning – drawing a general conclusion from many separate facts
Example: You examine the accident reports of a great number of agencies such as police departments, national automobile – insurance companies, and regional motor – vehicle departments. You find that majority of automobile accidents are caused by reckless driving or speeding.
General Conclusion: Excessive speed is a major factor in automobile accidents in the Philippines.
3. Analogy – conclusions based on comparisons
Example: You can argue that since your neighboring college has a successful speech choir, your own college, which is similar in size, student interests, teaching personnel, and community support, can succeed in Speech Club, too.
4. Causal relationship – based upon reasoning from a known fact to a related unknown fact
Example: The high increase in tuition may trigger unrest and demonstrations to the students.
FALLACIES IN REASONING
Ø Errors in reasoning which result in false, misleading, or inconsistent statements
Ø Caused by inadequate proof, drawing false conclusions, or violating in any ways the laws of valid argument
1. Hasty generalization – when facts do not justify the conclusion
Example: I went fishing three times in Laguna de Bay and did not catch any fish. Laguna is not a good bay to fish in.
Error: The fisherman has not considered weather, season, types of fishing limes, or even his own skill in fishing.
2. False analogy – comparisons made are not alike in their essential parts
Example: School X, which is a technical vocational college and Notre Dame of Dadiangas University are both educational institutions. They have the same size of faculty and students; both offer English; both engage in sports; both have good reputations. Therefore, a student could attend either one and receive the same education.
Error: The two schools are not alike in an essential part: their curriculum. One is a technical – vocational school, and the other offers a four – degree course.
3. Ignoring the Question
Example: A certain debater #1 tried to cloud the issue in her debates with another debater #2 by belittling #2’s background by attacking her relationship toward her family.
4. Irrelevant conclusion – violates the rules of logic and reach a conclusion that does not necessarily follow from the evidence presented
Example: All authors have imaginative minds. Mae has a keen imagination. Therefore, she can write short stories.
Error: The possession of an imaginative mind does not in itself guarantee the ability to write short stories.
4. Begging the question – assuming the truth or falsity of something without proving it
Example: “The present dominance of athletics is bad for our school” begs the question. The word dominance assumes a truth which is not proved. You must prove that athletics do dominate, not assume it.
POINT OF INFORMATION (POI)
1. The debater who wishes to ask a POINT OF INFORMATION rises from his or her seat, places one hand on top of his or her head and extends his or her other arm to signal that he or she has a point.
2. The debater who is speaking may choose not to recognize the point, he or she simply says “No thank you”, or waves the questioner off. The questioner then sits down. A questioner may not simply interrupt if his or her point is not taken.
3. If the debater who is speaking recognizes the point, then he or she says “On that point” and allows the questioner to give his or her point. At any time, the debater whose speech it is may stop the POI and tell the questioner to sit down.
English 29
Miss Ersweetcel C. Camansi (ersweetcelc@yahoo.com)
References: Aquino, F. (2002). Effective Speech Oral
Communication. Quezon City: Katha Publishing Co., Inc.
Galvin, K. and Cooper, P. (1999). The Basics of Speech:
Learning to Be a Competent Communicator.
Illinois: National Textbook Company.
Loose Handouts
Ø “to engage in strife and combat”
Ø any oral controversy
v an informal dispute between individuals who examine some question and consider the arguments on both sides
v an open argument before the public between two opponents
v a formal, highly regulated discussion of a given proposition between two matched teams as a test of their forensic ability
v an argument in one’s mind over some decisions he/she must make
VALUES OF DEBATE
1. Research skills – help in finding information and evidence in doing research works.
2. Organizational skills – help in planning speeches or write papers especially those that require quick and clear amount of information using various organizational patterns.
3. Critical listening skills – help in learning to examine the quality of the evidence and reasoning.
4. Speaking skills – help in gaining confidence in presenting ideas and standing up for certain beliefs in front of a group.
TYPES OF DEBATE
1. Parliamentary debate
v Asian – 2 competing teams (government and opposition), with 3 speakers in each team
v British – 4 competing teams, with 2 speakers in each team
v Australian – 2 competing teams, with 4 speakers in each team
2. Douglas – Lincoln – one on one debate
3. Oxford – Oregon – 2 competing teams, with (affirmative and opposite), with 3 speakers in each team
PROPOSITION – a statement of a problem that is worded so that there are clearly two sides to the argument
Qualities of a Good Proposition
1. It must be debatable.
2. It must be affirmative.
3. It must be stated concisely.
4. It must be a statement, not a question.
5. It must raise one central idea only.
Types of Proposition
1. Proposition of Fact – a statement that something is or is not true
Example: Resolved: That schools with vocational programs have lower student dropouts.
2. Proposition of Value – a statement that something is good or bad, right or wrong, useful or useless
Example: Resolved: That an oppressive government is better than no government at all.
3. Proposition of Policy – a statement that says something should or should not be done
Example: Resolved: That students with a course grade of 1.00 should be excused from taking the final exam.
DYNAMICS OF DEBATE: ASIANS AND AUSTRALIAN FORMATS
Government
Opposition
1. Prime Minister (PM) (7 – 8 minutes)
Ø Defines motion
Ø Sets parameters
Ø Forwards government’s case and states split
Ø Signposts Deputy Prime Minister
3. Deputy Prime Minister (DPM) (7 – 8 minutes)
Ø Rebuilds PM’s case
Ø Restates theme
Ø Builds own split
Ø Signposts
Ø Summarizes government’s case
5. Rebuttal Speaker (7 – 8 minutes)
Ø Rebuts point by point or thematically
Ø Rebuilds government’s case
8. Reply Speaker (4 minutes)
Ø Identifies issues in the debate
Ø Says why they did a better job in addressing issues
2. Leader of the Opposition (LO) (7 – 8 minutes)
Ø Negates the motion
Ø Sets own parameters
Ø Introduces case and states split
Ø Signposts Deputy Leader of the Opposition
4. Deputy Leader of the Opposition (DLO) (7 – 8 minutes)
Ø Rebuilds LO’s case
Ø Restates theme
Ø Builds own split
Ø Signposts
Ø Summarizes opposition’s case
6. Rebuttal Speaker (7 – 8 minutes)
Ø Rebuts point by point or thematically
Ø Rebuilds opposition case
7. Reply Speaker (4 minutes)
Ø Identifies issues in the debate
Ø Says why they did a better job in addressing issues
HOW TO PREPARE A SPEECH
1. Exordium - opening
2. Salutation – greetings
3. Definition
4. Team Split – assignment of issues
5. Argument 1
6. Argument 2
7. Argument 3
8. Closing
KINDS OF EVIDENCE
a. Facts
· Statements of actuality
· Established facts cannot be refuted , but you can offer opposing facts
b. Examples
· Specific instances, cases, illustrations, comparisons, situations, conditions, or occurrences which throw light on a problem
· Adequate and good examples can prove a point completely
c. Statistics
· Figures based on facts
· Powerful if extensive, up to date, and reliable
d. Quotations
· Citations of people’s statements
· May deal with facts or opinions
· Also called testimony or authority
· Be sure that the person you are quoting has prestige and that his authority is acceptable to your opponent and to your audience.
KINDS OF REASONING
1. Deductive reasoning – from the general to particular
Example: All citizens of the Philippines are guaranteed equal political rights under the constitution. I am a citizen of the Philippines. Therefore, I have the political rights as other citizens.
2. Inductive reasoning – drawing a general conclusion from many separate facts
Example: You examine the accident reports of a great number of agencies such as police departments, national automobile – insurance companies, and regional motor – vehicle departments. You find that majority of automobile accidents are caused by reckless driving or speeding.
General Conclusion: Excessive speed is a major factor in automobile accidents in the Philippines.
3. Analogy – conclusions based on comparisons
Example: You can argue that since your neighboring college has a successful speech choir, your own college, which is similar in size, student interests, teaching personnel, and community support, can succeed in Speech Club, too.
4. Causal relationship – based upon reasoning from a known fact to a related unknown fact
Example: The high increase in tuition may trigger unrest and demonstrations to the students.
FALLACIES IN REASONING
Ø Errors in reasoning which result in false, misleading, or inconsistent statements
Ø Caused by inadequate proof, drawing false conclusions, or violating in any ways the laws of valid argument
1. Hasty generalization – when facts do not justify the conclusion
Example: I went fishing three times in Laguna de Bay and did not catch any fish. Laguna is not a good bay to fish in.
Error: The fisherman has not considered weather, season, types of fishing limes, or even his own skill in fishing.
2. False analogy – comparisons made are not alike in their essential parts
Example: School X, which is a technical vocational college and Notre Dame of Dadiangas University are both educational institutions. They have the same size of faculty and students; both offer English; both engage in sports; both have good reputations. Therefore, a student could attend either one and receive the same education.
Error: The two schools are not alike in an essential part: their curriculum. One is a technical – vocational school, and the other offers a four – degree course.
3. Ignoring the Question
Example: A certain debater #1 tried to cloud the issue in her debates with another debater #2 by belittling #2’s background by attacking her relationship toward her family.
4. Irrelevant conclusion – violates the rules of logic and reach a conclusion that does not necessarily follow from the evidence presented
Example: All authors have imaginative minds. Mae has a keen imagination. Therefore, she can write short stories.
Error: The possession of an imaginative mind does not in itself guarantee the ability to write short stories.
4. Begging the question – assuming the truth or falsity of something without proving it
Example: “The present dominance of athletics is bad for our school” begs the question. The word dominance assumes a truth which is not proved. You must prove that athletics do dominate, not assume it.
POINT OF INFORMATION (POI)
1. The debater who wishes to ask a POINT OF INFORMATION rises from his or her seat, places one hand on top of his or her head and extends his or her other arm to signal that he or she has a point.
2. The debater who is speaking may choose not to recognize the point, he or she simply says “No thank you”, or waves the questioner off. The questioner then sits down. A questioner may not simply interrupt if his or her point is not taken.
3. If the debater who is speaking recognizes the point, then he or she says “On that point” and allows the questioner to give his or her point. At any time, the debater whose speech it is may stop the POI and tell the questioner to sit down.
English 29
Miss Ersweetcel C. Camansi (ersweetcelc@yahoo.com)
References: Aquino, F. (2002). Effective Speech Oral
Communication. Quezon City: Katha Publishing Co., Inc.
Galvin, K. and Cooper, P. (1999). The Basics of Speech:
Learning to Be a Competent Communicator.
Illinois: National Textbook Company.
Loose Handouts
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